MENTAL DEFICIENCY AND CRIME
Three generations of imbeciles are enough. (Oliver Wendell Holmes)

    Next to physical deformity, mental deficiency has been the second most popular explanation of crime.  Although few criminologists adhere to the belief that the only explanation of crime is low intelligence, the idea remains popular among the general public and the media as something believed in and entertaining. Some people view intelligence along demonological lines much like the idea that ugly is evil (for physical deformity), the parallel being that mental slowness or dullness must be a curse of God (for mental deficiency).  People with low intelligence are often seen as not knowing any better. They are seen as not appreciating the reasons for the existence of law. It is believed they are too easily turned into accomplices or "dupes" by criminals.  Zeleny (1933) identified at least four ways a person of low intelligence could commit crime: (1) by being duped; (2) by sheer folly; (3) by inability to understand; and (4) by attempting to provide for self.  While it may be true that foolish people do foolish things (and stupid is as stupid does), there are certain patterns to FOLLY that deserve study in their own right.  Perkins (2002) claims that there are three basic patterns to folly: (1) mistuning, (2) entrenchment, and (3) undermanagement, explained as follows:

    Lest my note above give the wrong impression that all stupidity is self-inflicted, let me just say that "stupid people exist" who don't need to inflict anything upon themselves, and in cases of diagnosed mental retardation, such people have an organic disorder and cannot really be held accountable for their actions.  Instead, my focus is upon those of average or slightly sub-average intelligence (who happen to make up the bulk of the criminal population).  These people (say, with an IQ above 75) CAN be held accountable at law.  Their willpower is regarded as mature enough to merit the examination of intelligence-related explanations for their "dumb" criminal behavior.  I'm sure most criminals of this type think they're smart and are capable of formulating their own thoughts and intentions, so with that in mind, let's explore the idea that mental deficiency helps explain their involvement in crime.

    It might help at the start here to review exactly what we're talking about by mental deficiency.  "Intelligence" generally consists of different abilities, such as the ability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, learn and understand new material, adapt to novel situations quickly, grasp complex relationships, and profit from past experience (MSN Encarta 2003).  In other words, intelligence is "catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.  IQ is probably best thought of as a measure of brightness, or what intelligence tests measure.  There are different types of intelligence tests, with some using words or numbers and requiring cultural knowledge (like vocabulary), and others using shapes, designs, and only requiring simple, universal concepts (like up/down).  Some intelligence tests are among the most accurate of all psychological tests and assessments.  The brain processes underlying intelligence are becoming more understood, and current research is looking at speed of neural transmission, glucose (energy) uptake, and electrical activity of the brain.  Some theories of intelligence look at the efficiency of information processing, and other theoretical models look at general adaptability.

    IQ compares people to others of the same age, and is calculated by multiplying 100 times the quotient of mental age over chronological age. Mental age is determined by a score on a test. The first intelligence quotient (IQ) test was invented by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in 1905 (the Simon-Binet scale, consisting of 54 questions, revised in 1908 and 1911). They advocated its use for assessing teachability and prediction of academic achievement.  Overall, it accomplished these purposes.  In 1912, Lewis Terman of Stanford University made some revisions to the test, and it became known as the Stanford-Binet scale (consisting of 90 questions), which produced a score called the intelligence quotient, or IQ.  One of the things about scales is that they predict future behavior (or effects), as opposed to indexes which collect symptoms (describe causes).  Terman advocated its use for career counseling purposes.  The meaning of IQ is as follows, although modern tests no longer use the IQ terminology, but instead a quintile score that reflects deviation from the average of others who are the same age:

    INTERPRETATION OF TABLE: Most people cluster around the average (IQ 100), with about 3% of Americans regularly scoring above IQ 130 (the threshold for "gifted"), and about 3% regularly scoring below IQ 70 (the threshold for "retarded").  Ashkenazi Jews and certain East Asian ethnic groups regularly score higher than non-Hispanic whites, and nobody knows why.  People at the lowest two levels, profoundly and severely retarded, have to be institutionalized. The moderately or mildly retarded can stay with family or friends, although the amount of care required would be burdensome.  Slow learners are a large, diverse group. People in the low range (71-80) of this group have been variously called "idiots", "morons", "stooges", or "sixth-graders" while people in the high range (81-90) have usually been called "challenged" or "disabled". The average range is also a large, diverse group, and some studies indicate that daily variation in IQ (rather than a fixed score) is the norm once you reach this level.  IQ tests like the Stanford-Binet are only good at measuring up to the "superior" level; i.e., up to an IQ of 140.  After that, you would need to take a special test, like one constructed by the Mensa society, to see if your IQ measured in the "very superior", "gifted", or "genius" ranges.  Also, full mental age is reached at the chronological age of 16, so giving a person under the age of 16 an IQ test is normally not appropriate, although some instruments claim to assess childhood IQ, like the Wunderlich or Werschler tests.

    During World War I, the United States Army started using intelligence tests, and there were two types.  The Alpha test was used for literate recruits, and the Beta test was used for illiterate recruits.  The Beta test consisted of mazes, completion of pictures with missing pieces, and other pattern-solving exercises.  The Alpha test evolved into the Scholastic Aptitude Test, or SAT, by 1926.  The most widely used modern tests of intelligence today are the SAT, the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (Kaufman-ABC).  There are at least 10 subtests or subscales on each of these.  Most of them measure vocabulary, similarities and differences, memory, knowledge of common events, object assembly, mazes, and simple arithmetic.  Those tests that are called achievement tests measure what a person has already learned, and those tests called aptitude tests predict future performance or potential for learning.  Achievement and aptitude tests give much greater weight to knowledge, vocabulary, and arithmetic.  Well-known tests that are called achievement or aptitude tests include the SAT, the Graduate Record Exam (GRE), the California Achievement test, the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT), and the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT).  Intelligence tests are the most reliable of all psychological tests.

    Psychologists literally have a monopoly over the study of intelligence. Sociologists ignore it because it's a "kind of people" explanation that is seen as non-sociological. Geneticists are somewhat interested in it, but only in the context of how it sheds light on research questions in hereditary science.  In fact, the heredity-environment debate is largely unsettled and still a matter of debate among scientists. Well-known figures in the 1960s included William Shockley (who founded a sperm bank for geniuses) and Arthur Jensen, made the case that IQ is largely genetic, with Jensen claiming that environment can only affect 20% of intelligence at most.  Other studies have noted that encouragement from parents and peers, as well as interest and motivation, can overcome genetically-endowed low intelligence. 

THE RACIAL BIAS CONTROVERSY

    Another controversy is the intelligence-race connection.  African Americans (as well as some other minority groups), on average, score about 15 points below those of European ancestry on intelligence tests.  Many studies have consistently found (and there's no getting around the fact) that the average IQ of an African American is 85 while the average IQ of a white American is 100, and that one in five African Americans have an average IQ of 75 (Seligman 1992).  Another way that this is often reported is to say that a 17-year old African American performs at the reading, math, and science level of a 13-year old white.  High school proficiency testing mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act has confirmed this, that African American high school graduates can usually only perform academically at the eighth grade level.  This consistent finding of a 15 point difference has led many critics to question whether IQ really measures intelligence or some sort of "test-taking" skill, whether or not the content of IQ test questions are "culturally biased," or whether or not predominantly African American high schools are doing their job.  The vast majority of psychologists flatly deny that intelligence tests are culturally biased against African Americans or any other minority, but will admit that individuals who do not understand English well can have a hard time on intelligence tests.  Another group of "egalitarian race theorists" (e.g., Montagu 2002) argue that since neither "race" nor "IQ" are well-defined, neither race nor IQ probably exist.  However, most studies concur that the biggest gap between whites and other groups is on a subset of IQ tests that measures verbal intelligence.  Verbal intelligence is usually regarded as the first (and perhaps most important) subset of IQ test questions, the other subsets being: quantitative ability, spatial ability, perceptual ability, memory, reasoning, and word fluency.  Low verbal intelligence is related to the failure to develop higher-order cognitive processes such as moral reasoning, empathy, and problem solving.  Other types of intelligence are sometimes called "performance IQ" where no significant differences usually show up between people.

    You may have also heard about a controversial book in the 1990s, The Bell Curve, by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray.  In it, they argue that forces are at work in American society to lower the collective IQ.  This is called the "dumbing down hypothesis" and it blames the problem on the fact that high-IQ people produce little or no offspring while low-IQ people have more children and have them at younger ages.  Intermarriage doesn't occur much among people with different IQs (a process known as assortative mating).  Some criminologists, like Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang, have agreed, in principle, with Herrnstein's thesis.  They make a strong case for the argument that IQ is a better predictor of criminality than social class; e.g. there's at least an 8-point difference in IQ even when controlling for social factors.  In psychology, the notion that people are getting smarter or dumber is known as the Flynn effect (named after a New Zealand philosopher called James Flynn).  Research on the Flynn effect has shown, that overall, people are getting smarter, and on average, the world population is increasing 15 points in intelligence every 50 years.  This increase, however, is only selective.  People are getting smarter primarily with visual-spatial reasoning.  Vocabulary and verbal intelligence are showing little to no change.

    Genetic disorders (diabetes, poor vision, and phenal detonuria) as well as unlucky childhood experiences (injuries, exposure to poisons, severe neglect, and some diseases) all affect intelligence, but by and large, the consensus of scholars is that IQ is highly heritable (caused by heredity, but not completely by heredity).  Most African Americans have white ancestors - the white admixture is about 20%, on average - but studies on mixed ancestry populations does not seem to help explain IQ differences or prove the heritability thesis.  The only way to truly test the notion that IQ is 100% inherited is to make environments equal for everyone.  Science does not yet know how to do this, and scientists also do not know how to raise IQ permanently.  Inter-racial differences in IQ also do not seem to be affected by social class.  For example, African Americans from prosperous families do tend to score higher than African Americans from poorer families (intra-racial differences), but still tend to score lower than whites, even whites from poor families (inter-racial differences).  There is clearly a need for more research on heredity and environmental factors.   

    The issue of bias with intelligence testing arises from a concern for the long known fact that ethnic and racial groups have always differed in their test scores.  All psychologists admit that African Americans consistently score 15 points lower than whites on IQ tests.  Hispanics also tend to do poorly, falling somewhere between the average for whites and African Americans.  Asians tend to have an IQ that is 3-7 points higher than whites.   The first attack on IQ tests came in the 1960s, and critics said the test items and questions themselves were biased.  Research on the issue of item bias has found no specific cultural bias in any test questions.  In other words, there are no inherent flaws in the tests.  It may be however, that poor performance reflects social and educational disadvantages experienced by some ethnic groups.  In the 1970s (as with the 1979 California case of Larry P. v. Wilson Riles), the second attack on IQ tests involved challenging the placement of black children in special education classes.  This case, and a similar one in Chicago (PASE v. Hanon), did not prove in court that IQ tests were biased, but judges have ordered school systems to find ways to eliminate disproportionate minority placement in special education. 

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE          

    An interesting contemporary controversy is the debate over single versus multiple intelligence.  Followers of a line of work started by a psychologist named Spearman argue that intelligence is a single, overriding factor (called the g-factor), and sometimes referred to as "native" intelligence.  The g-factor represents all intellectual and mental abilities.  Spearman found that people who score high on any one of the subtests tend to do well on all others.  Given this view, intelligence is horizontal, largely nonlearned, and cuts across all other abilities.  Biologists believe the g-factor measures some sort of mental "energy" or power, and may be related to neural capacity, neural speed, or other property of the brain.  Spearman invented a correlation coefficient statistic to prove the existence of an underlying factor, and his method evolved into what we now call factor analysis.  

    Followers of a line of work started by a psychologist named Thurstone and also drawing upon the work of Piaget (like Howard Gardner - a 1990s proponent of the idea of multiple intelligences) argue that intelligence is vertical, that there are different ways a person could be intelligent.  An "idiot savant" (like in the movie Rain Man), for example, could have very strong mathematical abilities, but be very poor at verbal abilities.  From an analysis of 56 different subtests, Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities, as he called them.  According to Gardner's (1983) schema, the complete list of multiple intelligence(s) and typical occupations where found is as follows:

• Linguistic -- reading, writing, talking; journalists, politicians, lawyers

• Logico-math -- categorizing, classifying, calculating; technicians, scientists, computers

• Spatial -- visualization, drawing, orienting; architects, artists, pilots

• Body-kinesthetic -- coordination, handiness, expressiveness; dancers, actors, crafts

• Musical -- listening, perception, sensitivity; musician, singer, therapist

• Interpersonal -- influential, sociological, ability to pick up cues; no specific profession

• Intrapersonal -- disciplined, awareness, self-knowledge; teacher, clergy, psychologist

    Critics of the multiple intelligence approach note that the studies conducted have primarily been on college students and adults, while the studies conducted on the g-factor have primarily been with children.  College educators have indeed actively embraced Gardner's ideas, mostly because it resonates well with active learning and other pedagogies of teaching.  Sophisticated cluster and factor analysis comparing the two approaches have largely produced the finding that both approaches are measuring the same thing, i.e., that the battery of tests used in the multiple intelligence approach, when taken together, measure a g-factor.

    There is also some controversy over what is called fluid versus crystallized intelligence.  In the 1960's, psychologists Raymond Cattell and John Horn discovered this difference.  Fluid intelligence presumably measures the biological basis, and crystallized intelligence presumably measures knowledge and skills learned through experience.  Fluid intelligence remains stable throughout the lifetime, and crystallized intelligence can increase indefinitely.  Vocabulary and verbal intelligence, in this schema, are regarded as part of crystallized intelligence.  Cattell's ideas for improvement in IQ are related to what he calls "investment," which is a vague term referring to how much effort a person puts out in making use of their biologically-given intelligence.

    In the 1980's, yet another theory of intelligence emerged, this time by the Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg (1985), and called the Triarchic theory of intelligence.  In this view, IQ consists of three parts: analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.  These parts are not seen as separate, but as interconnected parts of a single system.  Analytic intelligence involves skills at reasoning, analyzing, evaluating, judging, and comparing.  Creative intelligence involves the ability to combine seemingly unrelated facts to form new ideas.  Practical intelligence involves the ability to adapt, select, and shape the real-world environment.  In Sternberg's schema, people are aware of which areas they are strong and weak at, and they try to capitalize on their strengths as well as compensate for their weaknesses.  Research on these ideas is emerging, and full support has yet to be achieved for the idea of practical intelligence since there are so many contexts in which to test the theory.

    In the 1990's, the notion of emotional intelligence was raised by the psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer (Mayer & Salovey 1993).  People with this kind of IQ tend to have abilities to perceive, understand, express, and regulation emotions.  They use their emotions to guide thoughts and behavior, and also generally have the ability to accurately read others' emotions.  This conception is very similar to the notion of social competence, which has found a small place in the criminological literature.  Research on emotional intelligence is far from conclusive, although it does seem plausible that for people with low intelligence, sometimes a strong emotion will overrule their common sense and make them do foolish things, although others regard the idea of emotional flooding over intelligence as a kind of folk psychology.      

INTELLIGENCE AND CRIME

    The earliest group of criminologists who looked at intelligence and crime comprise what are known as the "pedigree" studies.  Pedigree study is the process of tracing the family tree of criminals to see if the genealogy contains examples of family ancestors with low intelligence.  Richard Dugdale, in 1877, went back 200 years to trace the ancestry of a family known as The Jukes.  He found that not only were it current members always in trouble with the law, but that the family history extensively included pauperism, prostitution, fornication, illegitimacy, and degeneracy.  His work was so influential that by 1899, Americans were clamoring for something to be done about the "Three Ds" in society: the Dangerous (mentally ill) class; the Delinquent (criminal) class; and the Defective (mentally retarded) class.  Americans saw welfare, public assistance, and philanthropy programs as futile about this time.  An influential book at the time was written in 1901 by Charles Henderson, entitled The Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes.

    In 1912, another "pedigree" researcher, H.H. Goddard, of the New Jersey Training School for the Feeble Minded at Vineland, studied a family known as The Kallikaks.  He traced this criminal family's history back six generations to the illegitimate offspring of a "feebleminded" barmaid.  He popularized the idea of feeblemindedness as an alternative for the words "moron", "imbecile", and "idiot" (anyone with an IQ of around 75).  Feeblemindedness is hereditary, passed on in a 3:1 ratio according to Mendelian Law through a recessive gene to what are called simplex cases in the second generation.  If simplex marries simplex, all the offspring are guaranteed to be feebleminded.  Goddard saw feeblemindedness as the breeding ground for crime. At that time in society, 97% of all female prostitutes, 80% of truants, and 50% of paupers were feebleminded. Goddard did extensive mental testing in jails and prisons, finding that 70% of criminals were feebleminded (even today, incarcerated criminals normally score 20 points less on IQ tests than noncriminals).

    The American government quickly accepted the idea that all feebleminded people were potential criminals and put Goddard in charge of Immigration and Naturalization at Ellis Island until 1928.  From that position, he trained a group of clinicians to look for certain signs of feeblemindedness among the immigrants coming off the boats.  Sometimes they just sized a person up, and sometimes they would take people aside, show them a drawing, and ask them to draw it from memory.  The training wasn't all that sophisticated (and Goddard, according to Gould, later admitted to doctoring photos of what the feebleminded were supposed to look like), and included things like looking for immigrants with glassy eyes that recede into eye sockets.  Goddard, you see, also believed that masturbation and/or overindulgence in sex caused this (the eyes to recede into eye sockets); hence the popular warning American mothers used for years when they suspected their sons were masturbating ("Stop that Johnny, or you'll go blind"). 

    Goddard also convinced the U.S. military to initiate IQ testing along the same lines as this feeblemindedness profiling (being able to pick em out by sight).  The Army tests were called the "Beta" tests, and they led to a diagnosis of feeblemindedness among 37% of the Whites and 89% of the Blacks. Subsequent tests by the military have shown that draftees tend to have an average IQ of 75 (slightly above the feeblemindedness range).  Even today, the military relies upon intelligence to screen out volunteers.  Ironically, dynamometer and other tests show that a large percentage of people with low intelligence have excessive strength, tallness, broad shoulders, a heavy thick-set build, primitive digestive system that isn't upset by swallowing anything, wounds that heal fast, resistance to certain diseases, and dullness to pain.  Goddard also convinced the prison systems of 24 states that at least 50% of their inmates were feebleminded.  Together with his team, and a doctor named Harry Sharp, they proceeded to perform mandatory vasectomies on delinquents and inmates throughout these prison systems.  Many state prison systems had compulsory sterilization policies up until 1960.

    Another colorful character in history was Charles Benedict Davenport, a doctor who ran the Station for Experimental Evolution in Cold Spring Harbor, NY from 1904 until the 1930s with funding from the Carnegie Institute.  Black (2003) writes about Davenport as being the leader of the American Eugenics Movement.  For three decades, the Cold Spring Harbor station was believed to be the command-and-control headquarters of the eugenics movement, and people sent there with allegedly inheritable moral failings (such as criminality, alcoholism, promiscuity, and pauperism) were involuntarily sterilized so they couldn't have offspring.  The Carnegie Institute pulled the plug on their funding for such activities in 1939. 

CONCLUSIONS AND CONTEMPORARY INTELLIGENCE STUDIES

    The generally accepted wisdom, according to a number of fairly well-done studies, is that the average (nonincarcerated) criminal IQ is 90 (92 or 93, depending upon who's study you use), but conventional wisdom holds that there is usually a ten point gap (90 v. 100) between criminals and the average for the rest of the population.  The incarcerated criminals who have gotten caught tend to have much lower IQs, often around 85 or so, which triggers status as a mentally "disabled" inmate or one with a "learning disability."  Contemporary researchers like E. Wilson (who wrote the first textbook on Sociobiology) and C. Ray Jeffrey (a Florida State criminologist) have tried to sort out the reasons for why criminals have at least an seven or eight-point gap.  Some claim it's a neurotransmitter problem, others the inability to interact with the environment, and others the effect of alienating labeling in school.  Some psychopaths and those with certain mental conditions (like paranoia) have high IQ, but these cases are rare.  Be advised that even though a seven (7), eight (8), or ten (10) point difference in IQ may not look like much, and indeed, many researchers will dismiss such differences as being within the "normal" range of variation, more detailed research (Goodman 1995) will almost always find A FEW POINTS MATTER, and even differences of six (6) points will be associated with more lying, cheating, stealing, and conduct disorders. 

Genetic Endowment Research
    The twin and adoption studies have been informative, especially by what this group of researchers call their "concordance" studies.  Concordance is the likelihood that one individual (an identical twin, for example) will have the same or similar characteristics (intelligence, criminality) as a biological relative.  In theory at least, the idea of concordance is the notion that there is some genetic input or determinism in the risk of becoming involved in crime. There's a 77% concordance rate for identical twins (even when living apart), and a 20% concordance rate for adoptees (with criminal biological parents and noncriminal adoptive parents).  A strong genetic influence is suggested, particularly for property crime and particularly when low intelligence is involved (Mednick et al. 1987).

Sex Difference Research
    Sex differences are also a contemporary area of study, and only slight differences between men and women have been found.  Men, however, tend to dominate the extremes of IQ; the upper levels of genius and the bottom levels of retardation.  Men are overrepresented among the ranks of the mentally retarded.  Men perform better at spatial ability testing, and women perform better at reading comprehension, writing, perceptual speed, and certain memory tasks.  There are few gender differences in math ability.

Race Difference Research
     Most recent developments in this area have focused on ways to measure internal bias in mental testing, such as the use of techniques known as Differential Item Functioning (DIF) which can sort through databases and presumably detect manifest and latent bias.  Minority affairs officers are usually mandated to be knowledgeable of such techniques.  There is a difference between external bias (such as if the test had some political agenda to discriminate) and internal bias (which is the research question of whether a test has any systematic error in measurement).  Bias, then, is a technical, not a political matter anymore.    

Learning Disability Research
    An area of study known as the LD-JD connection (Learning Disabilities - Juvenile Delinquency) started in the 1950s with the discovery of Thorazine (and later Ritalin) to control what was regarded as America's number one problem: hyperactive children.  By the 1990s, several other names were developed for hyperactivity, the most common one being attention deficit disorder. Although learning disabilities come in a variety of forms, and speculation abounds about various connections between specific disabilities and crime, attention deficit disorder is the most widely studied disability.

    Theoretically, a learning disability is a discrepancy between ability and achievement.  Given this view, learning disabled people are either underachievers or overachievers.  A learning disability is always, however, an intelligence problem.  There's a problem with receiving information, processing information, or communicating information.  There are two approaches within criminology regarding the causes of crime among the learning disabled:

    Schooling is obviously an important factor that affects intelligence.  Attendance is the primary variable here, and regardless of debates over the quality of schooling, research has consistently shown that students who skip school on a relatively frequent or intermittent basis suffer from lower IQ.   When parents move a child to a better school, there may be a small, measurable increase in IQ, but it is just as likely that there will be no change in IQ.  Most research in this area has been directed at the effectiveness of early intervention programs, like Head Start, and the results are promising.  Such pre-Kindergarten programs produce enormous boosts in IQ, as much as 15 points compared to control groups.  However, there is an unfortunate thing called the "fade-out" effect, which happens when Head Starters graduate and enter regular school.  Their IQ tends to decline down to the level found in the regular school.

Family Factor Research   
    Families are obviously important factors.  Besides motivating children toward intelligence via encouragement, coaching, and modeling, other things families can do is be informed about the effects of family size and birth order.  Studies have consistently shown that smaller families (with less children) tend to produce higher-IQ children.  Also, first-born children are usually the smartest, with IQ decreasing as one moves down the birth order.  Prenatal care for expectant mothers is very important, and there is a condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome (low IQ and behavioral problems) which happens if the mother drinks large amounts of alcohol.  Low IQ is also produced when infants eat chips of lead-based paint or are exposed to lead contamination in the atmosphere.  Prolonged malnutrition during infancy also produces low IQ. 

Personality Disorder Research   
    The susceptibility of those with low intelligence toward development of a personality disorder (such as antisocial personality disorder) is also a contemporary area of research that needs to have more attention drawn to it.  It is generally agreed in criminology that high intelligence "insulates" a person against maladaptive behavior that gets them in trouble with the law, but there is little research on exactly what personality traits or attributes account for this.  Austin and Deary (2002) suggest that high emotional intelligence, the trait of Openness, and low Neuroticism play a role in helping keep people out of trouble, and that Angry Temperment is mostly likely the link between mental deficiency and personality disordered criminals.

APPENDIX: A TYPICAL IQ TEST (quickie, Readers-Digest-type version)

1. These words can be arranged to form a sentence. Is the sentence True or False? (one in is number than more cars car)
A. True
B. False
2. What number is as much more than 10 as it is less than one-half of what 30 is 10 less than?
Answer: ___
3. George gets twice as large a share of profits as any of his three partners. The three partners share equally. What fraction of the entire profits is George's?
Answer: ___
4. Birds can only fly and hop, but worms can crawl; therefore:
A. Birds eat worms
B. Birds don't crawl
C. Birds sometimes crawl
5. Stockings always have:
A. Holes
B. Weight
C. Seams
D. Garters
6. When Carol makes soup, she puts in 1 bean for each 2 peas. If her soup contains a total of 300 peas and beans, how many peas are there?
Answer: ___
7. Pique is most similar in meaning to:
A. Choice
B. Decoration
C. Dwarf
D. Resentment
E. Sorrow
8. In this series, what number comes next? (2 A 9 B 6 C 13 D)
Answer: ___
9. In this series, what number comes next? (2 9 6 7 18 5)
Answer: ___
10. Which letter does not belong in this series? (Z Y X B W V)
Answer: ___
11. Botanist is to sociology as plant is to:
A. men
B. train
C. society
D. headache
12. If all men have shoes, then big men have:
A. big shoes
B. old shoes
C. shoes
D. green shoes
13. How many miles can a dog run in 3 minutes if the dog runs half as fast as a car going 40mph?
Answer: ___
14. In this group, which object does not belong?
A. Radio
B. Clock
C. Football
D. Battery
15. In this group, which word does not belong?
A. Builder
B. Bricklayer
C. Architect
D. Dentist

Answers: 1 (F), 2 (15), 3 (2/5), 4 (B), 5 (B), 6 (200), 7 (D), 8 (10), 9 (54), 10 (B), 11 (C), 12 (C), 13 (1), 14 (C), 15 (D)

Perfect score: 121-140 Superior intelligence
One wrong: 111-120 Above average
Two wrong: 91-110 Average
Three wrong: 71-90 Slow learner
Four wrong: 51-70 Mildly retarded

INTERNET RESOURCES
ARC Resources on Criminal Justice and Mental Retardation
Crime Times
Dumb Criminal Acts
Emotional Intelligence
IQ/Aggression Connection
Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
Lewis Terman: Cognitive Psychologist
MSN Encarta Encyclopedia Article on Intelligence
Planned Parenthood's Biography of Margaret Sanger
The Flynn Effect
Wikipedia: Race and Intelligence

PRINTED RESOURCES
Austin, E. & Deary, I. (2002). "Personality Dispositions," Pp. 187-211 in R. Sternberg (Ed.) Why Smart People Can Be So Stupid. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
Black, E. (2003). War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race. NY: Four Walls Eight Windows Press. [Sample Chapter]
Dowbiggin, I. (2003). A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America. NY: Oxford Univ. Press. [Sample Excerpt]
Dugdale, R. (1877/1988). The Jukes. NY: Putnam.
Eysenck, H. (2000). Intelligence: A New Look. NJ: Transaction Books. [Sample Excerpt]
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Goddard, H. (1912). The Kallikak Family. NY: Macmillan.
Goddard, H. (1914). Feeblemindedness. NY: Macmillan.
Goddard, H. (1915). The Criminal Imbecile. NY: Macmillan.
Goodman, R. (1995). "The relationship between normal variation in IQ and common childhood psychopathology," European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 4(3): 187-96.
Gould, S.  (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. NY: Norton.
Hirschi, T. & Hindelang, M. (1977). "Intelligence and Delinquency" American Sociological Review 42:572-87.
Jeffery, C.R. (1980). "Taboos in criminology," Sage research in criminology volume 15 by E. Sagarin (Ed.) Beverly Hills: Sage.
Jencks, C. & Phillips, M. (1998). The Black-White Test Score Gap. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institute. [Sample Excerpt]
Jensen, A. & Miele, F. (2002). Intelligence, Race, and Genetics. Los Angeles: Westview Press.
Mayer, J. & Salovey, P. (1993). "The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence," Intelligence 17: 433-442.
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