SPECIAL INTEREST AND SINGLE INTEREST EXTREMISM
"Heaven is under our feet as well as over our heads." (Henry David Thoreau)

    It's best to begin with discussion of the environmental movement and ecoterrorism.  The ecology movement began quite early in history, while its modern conceptions can be traced back to Lamarckism in 1801 and the ideas of Ernst Haeckel in 1866, both of which rejected Darwin's principle of natural selection.  The American environmentalism movement likewise originated in the 19th Century, primarily in the ethics of three New England writers: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and George Perkins Marsh.  Ecology became part of student activism on college campuses during the 1960s, and it was also about this time that big foundations were formed which used the ecological bandwagon to seek political power.  Ecoterrorism, or the eco-terrorist movement, first appeared in England during the 1970s and spread to the United States in the 1980s.  The FBI was slow in recognizing this single- or special-interest terrorism, but starting around 2001, the FBI now treats this type of domestic terrorism as a high priority threat.

   Ecoterrorism involves extremist views on environmental issues and animal rights, and is a fringe-issue form of terrorism aimed primarily at inflicting economic damage on those seen as profiting from the destruction and exploitation of the environment.  Adherents go way beyond mainstream environmentalists and animal activists to acts of violence justified on grounds that mainstream efforts aren't enough, and they often compare themselves to anti-slavery abolitionists or opponents of Nazi death camps.  It operates on the concept of leaderless resistance, and is sometimes referred to by experts as the type of terrorism most likely to be seen throughout all the 21st century.  It is very important to distinguish environmentalism from ecoterrorism.  Environmentalists work within the system for preservation; and ecoterrorists seem to want to destroy civilization as we know it in order to save the planet.  Greenpeace, for example, is a mainstream environmentalist group, but the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) is an ecoterrorist group.  It's important to understand that extreme ecoterrorists do NOT really want to preserve the environment or protect endangered species (like environmentalists); they are better characterized as wanting to destroy the world in order to save it.  Their goal is the destruction or degradation of mankind - an end to anthropocentrism.

An Ecoterrorist Makes the FBI Most Wanted Terrorist List

In April, 2009, Daniel Andreas San Diego, 31, an American citizen and computer specialist, joined the ranks of international terrorists wanted by the FBI. A quarter-million dollar reward was put on his head. In 2003, he planted bombs at two animal research facilities in California, lacing them with shrapnel and setting them up so as to target first responders. Since then, he has been on the run, presumably leading a vegan lifestyle somewhere in Central America. He is connected with an ALF-tied group known as Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC), and is an extreme animal rights activist who despises animals used for clothing and food.

    There are many varieties of ecoterrorism, ecofeminism and ecoanarchism being the two main ideologies.  It is not a united movement.  Leadership is fragile, although most likely leftist and extreme.  Often, it can cross political lines since there may be as many right-wing members as left-wing members.  There is no political agenda, no government to overthrow, and it can exist under any type of rule: capitalist, socialist, or dictatorship.  Ecoterrorists lead fulfilling and law-abiding lives most of the time when they are not driven by some all-consuming passion that something needs to be done -- and violently -- right now.  As a form of techno-exotic terrorism, it has the most ambivalent attitude toward technology; i.e., tech use will be used for some purposes, but not for others.

    ECOFEMINISM

    Let's begin with an overview of ecofeminism, which for the sake of brevity is a cross between radical and postmodern feminism.  The term was coined by Francoise d'Eaubonne in 1974.  Radical feminism involves a cosmology of Mother Earth (men as hunters-despoilers and womyn as nurturing gatherers).  Postmodern feminism involves conversation and discourse about New Age ways of living (such as vegetarian lesbianism and raising earth-conscious children).  True believers worship the Goddess (Brigid, Tana, or Cerridwen) and adore a Golden Age (Eden) that existed during the Pleisocene Age.  Wicca, or witchcraft, is probably the most popular expression of those beliefs, although there are many flavors of Wicca.  Celtic mythology plays a part, and the movement is decidedly pagan or neo-pagan. Organized religions, like Christianity, are rejected because they teach dominion over nature. Men are seen as war-mongers who like to blow things up, destroy nature (Mother Earth), and exterminate all life on the planet.  Fanaticism within the ecofeminist movement holds that extermination of the exterminators is a moral commandment, so the appropriate targets (for vandalism) are military weapons production centers, corporate and small business polluters, manufacturers of pesticides or herbicides, and anything having to do with nuclear energy, or weapons of mass destruction.

    Militant non-violent environmentalism goes back to the 1960s as a left-wing movement that was part of campus unrest and the "hippie" revolution.  Nader's Raiders were perhaps the most militant group in those days, but by 1971 evolved into Ralph Nader's umbrella group called Public Citizen. Other mainstream militant groups include the Sierra Club, the Audubon Society, and Greenpeace.  In the case of Greenpeace, a Canadian-led splinter group, calling itself the Sea Shepherds, broke off to advocate more direct violence, such as sinking whaling and drift netting ships, sailors and all.  It all started in 1977 when environmental activist Paul Watson, believing that nonviolent direct action tactics did not go far enough to protect animal life in the world’s oceans, split off from Gandhi-inspired Greenpeace to form the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. This new organization raised the stakes on the high seas by using acts of destruction, such as cutting drift nets, ramming whaling ships, and attacking commercial fishing operations (Long 2004). Whereas Watson saw himself as a savior of life on Earth, many others saw him as a new breed of environmental ecoterrorist.  Most splits occur within such groups between those prepared to destroy property and those prepared to kill people.  Resistance and protest against pollution has, of course, existed for centuries.  Environmentalists who work within the political system for change are called Greens, and the Green Party has been highly successful throughout Europe, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada.  

    Some radical, or so-called deep ecologists tend to advocate violence and ecoterrorism.  Deep ecology is a movement started by a Norwegian philosopher, Arnie Naess, in 1972 which posits that nature has value apart from its usefulness to humans.  It seeks to replace anthropocentrism with ecocentrism, and advocates we identify with trees, animals, and plants instead of our own egos and families. An ecocentric viewpoint is one in which we develop a less dominating and aggressive posture towards the Earth.  Some feminists embrace deep ecology because they see a connection between anthropocentrism and androcentrism - man-centeredness.  Criticisms of the deep ecology movement are easy to come by, as their thinking isn't all that deep, and in most cases, consists of reactionary ideology which justifies violence.  For example, most people don't know that the mass murderer Charles Manson and his "family" practiced an early form of deep ecology -- in their mantra of ATWA (Air, Trees, Water, Animals) -- which advocated revolution against pollution or a holy war where people die trying to do something about it.  Most modern forms of deep ecology, however, have evolved into fairly nonviolent forms of "bioregionalism" which advocates decentralized community self-rule within political boundaries redrawn to reflect the natural contours of differing ecosystems, but still, there must be some revolution to redraw these boundaries.

ECOANARCHISM

    There are many varieties of ecoanarchism, but a common theme tends to be loss of dignity at the hands of technology and how it is destroying our way of life.  Ecoanarchists can trace their heritage back to the 1811-1816 Luddite movement in England where textile workers broke into the factories to destroy the machines.  The Luddites are considered a precursor of modern labor unions, but they practiced guerilla warfare, reporting to a fictional general out in the woods called General Ludd.  The variation known as ecosocialism traces its roots to Peter Kropotkin, and post-Marxist ideologies tend to be either ecocommunalists or social ecologists. Kropoktin's encyclopedia article on anarchism stands as a classic read, and for contemporary times, Wikipedia has amassed some excellent reading on anarcho-primitivism, which many experts believe is the driving force behind ecoterrorism today.

    Ecosocialists concentrate on capitalism as the main force behind environmental degradation; ecocommunalism is a term that encompasses a diverse range of green anarchist theories promoting a utopian vision of human-scale, cooperative communities; and social ecologists see capitalism as a subset of the greater problem -- imposed social hierarchy.  Most ecoanarchists believe in non-hierarchical, decentralized, self-governing forms of rule.  However, there is such a thing that might be called right-wing ecoanarchism.  Ecofascism, for example, posits that population control is more important than the problems of capitalism or technology.  Enforced curfews, national "lights-out" laws, are land control in response to immigration problems are all forms of ecofascism.  More radical groups, such as the Church of Euthanasia, advocate cannibalism to rid the world of human population problems. There are also ecotechnocrats, who propose an end to the waste of technology and its use for ecological purposes. 

    The movement known as social ecology holds that ecofeminists and deep ecologists do not go far enough.  Social ecologists see all the world's social problems as being environmental problems, homelessness, for example, being the product of rainforest devastation.  They argue that racism, sexism, and third world exploitation are all environmental problems. They criticize ecofeminists and deep ecologists for engaging in nature mysticism, but they agree with deep ecologists that governments must go, and the Earth needs to be divided up into biospheres.    

    Most, if not all, ecoanarchists idolize the Unabomber, Ted Kaczinski, who from 1978 to 1996 waged a one-man war against industrialization and technology (see Case Study below).  His targets were scientists, businessmen, and quite often, innocent people, the latter a matter of no great concern to him.  Bombing is, of course, the favorite tool of an anarchist, but ecoanarchists advocate monkeywrenching, a term taken from Edward Abbey's 1975 book called The Monkey Wrench Gang.  The book describes how to engage in economic sabotage, such as pouring sugar in the crankcases of bulldozers, driving metal stakes through the trunks of trees scheduled for logging, and pulling up survey stakes to stall land use development.  Ecosabotage is the preferred means of action for Earth First! (exclamation mark mandatory), a leaderless group originally founded by Dave Foreman that spun off from Sierra Club and Friends of the Earth in 1980, which allows anybody to use their name.  It's not surprising that ecoanarchists target dams, bridges, highways, power lines, ski lodges, and anything symbolic of industrial society.  Millions of dollars worth of machinery is smashed every year, and numerous construction projects are interfered with to the point that developers give up.  Sabotage is a word which originated in the 1400s, in the Netherlands, where workers threw their wooden shoes (sabots) into the wooden gears of the textile looms to break the cogs (Hodson & Sullivan 2002).  Sabotage is commonly believed to be caused by feelings of exploitation or mistreatment, but it is more generally characterized as the kind of crime committed by those who are extremely alienated from the rest of society (Mars 2001).

THE ANIMAL LIBERATIONISTS

    Probably the most exotic form of ecoterrorism involves animal rights extremism, but it's probably not so exotic since Peter Singer legitimized it in his book Animal Liberation in the mid-1970s.  There are many people who believe that anything with a face has a soul and should be returned to its natural environment.  There are also Ghandian conceptions of justice that question our belief that if a thing is not alive, can it feel no pain?  Sometimes, people are guided by the concept of biocentrism, a belief that humans are no more important, and probably less important, than other animals. Humans should therefore be degraded in a kind of role reversal straight from the movie, Planet of the Apes. Groups include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), the Animal Rights Militia, the Band of Mercy, the Paint Panthers, and an organization with a strong web presence called Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty, or SHAC (Huntingdon Life Sciences being a firm that contracts with other companies to do pharmaceutical testing on animals).  Activists and law enforcement agents tend to call these groups "movements."  ALF is the oldest group, was originally formed in England during the 1970s, and the FBI regards it much more as a terrorist group than a "movement."  ALF advocates monkeywrenching and violence, as does the ELF.  Highly visible and publicity-seeking, they show no hesitation in bombing or bomb-hoaxing people on their doorsteps -- people such as furriers, butchers, restaurant owners, veterinarians, zookeepers, and above all, doctors who do medical research on animals.  Sometimes, they even target homeowners who abuse or neglect their pets.  Threats and acts of arson and firebombing are commonplace at colleges and universities where animals are used in research or education - just ask any Biology professor who does animal vivisection in the classroom.  Among animal liberationists and other ecoterrorists, there was a belief that AIDS was nature's way of telling mankind that she (Mother Earth) was unhappy and did not want humans to pass the year 2000 and for her followers to monkeywrench the millennium.  There's a strange tendency for ecoterrorists to worship anniversary dates, and to spraypaint, deface, or disrupt McDonalds restaurants quite frequently.  ALF is made up of autonomous underground “cells” and has at least two publications devoted to their activities: Underground and No Compromise.

    Less extremist animal liberationism involves throwing buckets of blood on people wearing mink fur coat, or passing out leaflets saying "animal killers" in front of animal research corporations.  Animal rights activists are usually from the middle or upper class, and not all of them want to see humans extinguished from the planet.  They want a reduced number of humans, and for humans to take their rightful (lower) place in the natural scheme of things.  For these reasons, they oppose medical research into Alzheimer's, cystic fibrosis, cancer, AIDS, and spinal cord injuries, not just because research into a cure involves animal research, but because it's nature's way of letting humans die.  They also don't like domesticated animals.  Cattle and sheep, which were introduced to the land by humans, have to be removed.  Dogs and cats are certainly a perversion of nature.  Indigenous animals like the grizzly bear and spotted owl have to be protected at all costs.  If humans are attacked and eaten by wild animals, so much the better, since that's just nature's way.  A few animal liberationists go so far as to sabotage efforts at spraying for mosquitoes, no so much that they believe in insect rights, but because they want humans to resume their rightful place in nature.  They basically want humans to die more.

    Other animal liberationist groups, such as SHAC, use Internet websites for questionable activities: to report on the activities ("direct actions") of its supporters; and to list maps, along with addresses and phone numbers, of where a supporter might find corporations, along with a list of current employees, who engage in animal testing or research.  People who have had their names, addresses, and phone numbers posted on one of these Internet sites have had their property vandalized, received harassing calls, or faced demonstrations outside their home and workplace.  In some cases, people have been physically attacked for having their name on a SHAC website.  These activist websites seem to just barely skirt the law, and are considered by the FBI to be protected on First Amendment grounds.  The websites are reminicent of an anti-abortion (self-described anti-choice) activist who, back in 1998, posted the names and addresses of abortion doctors where three such doctors got killed [The anti-abortion "Nuremberg Files" now exist at a website out of the Netherlands].  In that case, a U.S. District Judge ruled in 1999 that such websites constituted a threat to kill.  However, modern websites get around that legal precedent by posting a "disclaimer" which reads something like the following:

    ECOTERRORISM tends to occur more in the Western United States (in places like Colorado and Oregon), although it has reached as far East as North Carolina and the New England states.  Most of the nation's animal research labs are located in the Midwest, however, in places like Michigan State and University of Iowa.  Ecoterrorist acts include vandalism, sabotage, bombing, arson, liberation of animals, destruction of research data, theft, assault, murder, and infliction of economic loss. Law enforcement tends to classify many incidents as vandalism, but in any given year, approximately ten (10) major acts of ecoterrorism are committed in the United States, and they are well-planned attacks, the economic damage of each one costing about $1 million.  No group, individual, or organization involved in altering the natural environment is immune from these attacks, and there appear to be no qualms about targeting innocent civilians.  

    Counterterrorist efforts might focus on working with more moderate preservationist groups and/or helping re-educate some of the more deluded fanatics and extremists.  The level of emotional motivation and commitment runs high among ecoterrorists.  They are a difficult group to profile, and other than for the animal liberationists, maintain fairly good levels of secrecy.  Ecoterrorists utilize the Web to post their diaries of action, adopt the technique of an anonymous communiqué to take credit for attacks, and invite fellow travelers to action in their name.  Most members are intelligent, reasonable people, so perhaps dialogue or communication is possible, or perhaps they will attend to some other trend than the stifling of progress.  They remain well-poised to become the dominant force in domestic terrorism for years to come. 

THE ANTI-SUV MOVEMENT

    Towards the end of the year 2000, a new form of ecoterrorism emerged among mischievous middle-aged Americans who grew tired of gas-guzzling SUVs (Sports Utility Vehicles) and decided to place homemade stickers on them as a form of protest.  These mad taggers are mad about the impact of SUVs on the environment, and a short collection of their stickers is as follows:

• "I'm Changing the Climate. Ask Me How."

• "Bin Laden Used Your Gas Money"

• "If You Love America, Get Rid of Your SUV"

• "I Don't Care About the Air"

    Apparently, the movement can be traced to a 1996 Sierra Club report on how wasteful the thirteen miles per gallon fuel efficiency of SUVs are.  SUVs and other light trucks are also permitted to emit 29% to 47% more carbon monoxide (CO) and 75% to 175% more nitrogen oxides (NOx) than passenger cars.  The tagging of SUVs (and sometimes gas pumps) is a form of civil disobedience or protest that is more often humorous than harmful, but the strong glue used for such stickers is irritating and hard to remove.  In addition, the practice makes many SUV owners mad enough to call the police and pursue prosecutorial action.  In most cities, the crime is only one of unlawfully posting an advertisement and carries a fine of about $250.

    Sometimes, the mad taggers go too far.  In 2001, an arson attack destroyed 30 SUVs at a dealership in Eugene, Oregon, and since then, there have been nearly a dozen similar attacks at SUV dealerships nationwide.  One such attack at a dealership in Girard, Pennsylvania had the shadowy Earth Liberation Front (ELF) claim responsibility.  In November of 2002, a group of self-described ELF activists also slashed tires and splashed chemicals on some 30 SUVs parked on streets in Richmond, Virginia.  This kind of destruction is more wanton and malicious.  Most experts believe the Anti-SUV movement represents the latest evolution of targeting by ELF, who at one time, prior to 1998, confined their activities to logging and mining companies.  Two examples should suffice to illustrate the contrast:

ELF AS AMERICA'S BIGGEST DOMESTIC THREAT

     Although debatable, ELF, or the Earth Liberation Front, will be considered here as the most active, most dangerous, and largest domestic terrorist group in America (at least the FBI seems to think so).  ELF first surfaced in 1996 when they set fire to a U.S. Forest Service truck in Oregon, which caused little damage, but have since escalated into major damage events in populated areas.  ELF is a militant offshoot of the group Earth First! and before that, have roots in such 1970s groups as the Environmental Task Force, which went around the country blowing up crop dusters because they were spreading harmful pesticides.   They believe in saving the planet from the damage being done to it by pollution, logging, mining, and real estate development.  Their strategy is that by destroying property and inflicting financial damage, they can convince people to stop environmentally harmful practices.  Like ALF, ELF operates without leadership and structure, and it may even be inappropriate to call ELF a "group."  Activists "join" ELF by carrying out "direct action," leaving behind some slogans or initials at the crime scene, and then posting their accomplishment on one of the group's web sites.  According to the ELF website, 75 "direct actions" occurred in 2003, of which half were claimed in the name of ELF (or ALF), and rest were either anonymous or in the name of what were called "revolutionary cells" such as the Animal Liberation Brigade, Direct Action Front, the Frogs, or the Vegan Dumpster Militia.

    In 2004, the FBI has been actively tracking and arresting suspected "ringleaders" of ELF, such as the 23-year old responsible for a 2003 firebombing of a Hummer dealership.  He was caught after sending emails to a major newspaper claiming responsibility for the crimes.  Another shadowy 38-year old "ringleader" was caught in 2004 using fake IDs and attempting to shoplift some boltcutters from a Canadian store.  The FBI's strategy has been to make high profile arrests and attempt to demonstrate the group's vulnerability.  Meanwhile, the property damage keeps adding up.      

• a 2004 firebombing of newly constructed homes in Seattle, costing $1 million

• a 2003 arson of a condominium complex in San Diego, costing $50 million

• a 2003 arson of a Hummer dealership and 3 other car dealerships in Los Angeles, costing $2 million each

• a 1998 arson at a ski resort in Vail, Colorado, costing $12 million

• since 1996, numerous crimes in 14 states, totalling over $100 million in damage nationwide; see map, which is from Maxim Magazine's 2004 article (Denson 2004)

    Numerous FBI-led Joint Terrorist Task Forces and anti-terrorist analysts have tried to track down, arrest, prosecute, and convict members of ELF, but they are a difficult group for law enforcement to deal with.  Superior encryption tools are used whenever members communicate with one another electronically or via their centralized websites, and ELF's autonomous cell structure defies surveillance and infiltration.  The FBI claims ELF has simply had dumb luck that nobody has been killed yet, but ELF maintains that it carries out well-planned acts of economic sabotage.  There is no known way to profile ELF members as different from other environmentalists who might live in co-ops on organic farms.  NIJ-funded research is underway, however, to develop pre-incident indicators of when such extremists seem to get desperate enough to go on another arson rampage, like they did in 2003, where theories abound from speculation involving upset over the war in Iraq to the influence of other factors, like when the group thinks enough endangered species are at risk, or the cause of getting Americans to change their lifestyles need to be placed in the public eye again.  Unfortunately, there are few criminological theories of ecoterrorism developed yet, and it may very well be some time before all the necessary research is completed.

PYROTERRORISM

    Ecoterrorism may very well be the only kind of terrorism which has spawned its own "backlash" terrorism -- pyroterrorism.  The only other kind of terrorism that has produced a backlash is cyberterrorism, and that has been in the form of vigilante activity.  With ecoterrorism, however, and I should note that there is little evidence to prove it, suspicion has it that the rash of forest fires in recent years may have been caused by ANTI-ENVIRONMENTALISTS who are "fed up" with all the pro-environmental, tree-hugging nonsense (as they see it).  The official story that most governments usually give out is that forest fires are caused by lack of rain, lightning, or careless campers, but it may very well be that disgruntled anti-environmentalists (who are sympathetic to the concerns of timber companies) deliberately set the fires.  Pyroterrorism is suspected to be the case more in Australia and Latin America than in the United States.

    Within the U.S., a relatively nonviolent form of "backlash" (anti-environmental) extremism has developed, and is described in some detail by Vohryzek-Bolden et. al. (2001) as the Wise Use movement.  This coalition of right-wing groups is opposed to government control of public lands, and has been fairly successful at lobbying government to free up more federal land for private use and development.  The movement has been around at least since the so-called Sagebrush Rebellion of the 1970s when western state governors started calling for more federal land to be turned over to the states.  They are opposed to the "taking" clause of the Constitution which allows governments to force (with compensation) land owners out for public works projects such as building highways.  They would rather see national forests become off-road vehicle sites with logging and mining operations to extract the valuable resources that government lands hold.  Vohryzek-Bolden et. al. (2001) report that the movement's success can be attributed to a fairly sophisticated public relations strategy, consisting of three different kinds of messages to three different audiences (below), and the model could serve as illustrative of all sorts of extremist groups. 

• the vanguard message --  used to keep hardcore members in line, expressing the central ideas of the movement, and helping raise money for the organization

• the conspiracy message -- used as a recruiting tool to organize local groups or to convince already-involved members

• the mainstream message -- used to make academic or pseudo-scientific arguments; often the most prominent communication          

ENVIROCRIMINALITY

    Along the same lines as pyroterrorism is another form of anti-environmentalism, mostly prevalent in Europe and the UK where the offenders are known as "envirocriminals."  Envirocriminality typically involves the following behaviors:  vandalism, graffitti, and fly-tipping (a British term for illegally dumping waste somewhere other than an authorized landfill).  Fly-tipping can also involve people who put their garbage bins out early, or at all hours of the day and during the week, in an irresponsible fashion allowing the bins to be knocked over, spilling garbage out onto the streets.  It is a problem that British authorities take seriously, at the individual household level as well as with the large-scale, serial, illegal dumping operations.  Authorities, for example, hope to find out if mobile surveillance cameras along with vigorous prosecution will result in more public compliance with the law in conjunction with more public respect for the environment.  It is interesting to note and/or observe the dynamics between the law as a social control mechanism in this regard in comparison and contrast to the ideology-driven components of those behaviors which take respect for the environment to an extreme, at least in terms of  whether or not respect can be legislated.

INTERNET RESOURCES
Anarcha-Feminism
Animal Liberation Front (ALF)
Center for the Defense of Free Enterprise
CrimethInc
Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
Earth First! Solidarity Links
EarthShare.org
EcoFem.org
Ecofeminism Webring
Eve Online
InContext Journal
Infoshop Anarchy Hub
Stop Eco-Violence
Transition Strategies to a Green Society
Unabomber Manifesto
Wikipedia: Anarcho-Primitivism

PRINTED RESOURCES
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Mars, G. (Ed.) (2001). Workplace sabotage. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
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Smith, B. (1994). Terrorism in America. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
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Last updated: Apr. 21, 2009
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