ABSTRACT. In the 1880 United States Census report, published in 1884, the culture of cotton crops in the United States was described by the census agents and by their respondents. They describe cotton cultivation and the lands, soils on which it grew, and the native plants there. The lands of West Tennessee, the western Tennessee River valley, the Highland Rim and Central Basin are included. Dozens of respondents are cited. Sixty-seven plant taxa are reported, including 54 species and 13 other genera; there were also two intergeneric categories. Certain genera and species are reported throughout or nearly throughout the area. Oaks, hickories, and tulip poplars are the most mentioned upland trees; hydrophytic taxa are mentioned chiefly in the Bottoms; mesophytes and calciphiles are mentioned, especially in the Basin.

     The natural vegetation cover on the landscape is of interest to a variety of field scientists including historians (as Williams 1989), paleoecologists (Delcourt et al. 1993), pedologists (Jenny 1980), anthropologists (Chapman and Shea 1981), and vegetation biomass modelers (Waring and Schlesinger 1985). Vegetation ecologists (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974) use past vegetation to interpret impacts of environmental factors on existing vegetation and subsequent emerging vegetation patterns.

     Rectangular survey records (DeSelm 1994) and metes and bounds survey records (DeSelm 1999) have been used in the study of vegetation present at or near the time of European-American land settlement. However, studies of later vegetation, such as this one, show snapshots of vegetation to be compared with both the early records and with modern inventories.

     This paper reports the compilation of observation-reports of plants present in West and Middle Tennessee on and near cotton cropland at the time of the Tenth Census in 1880 (Safford 1884). I report plant composition in seven physiographic (sub)divisions (Figure 1). Chronologically, these observations lie between the land survey period near the time of settlement (DeSelm 1999) and the brief descriptions of Tennessee forests by Hall (1910). The Census reports are one of a group of three Safford reports made during this period which describe geology, soils, and note native plants; the other two are Safford (1869, Geology of Tennessee) and Killebrew, Safford and others (1874, Introduction to the Resources of Tennessee).

     The western two-thirds of Tennessee has a subtropic humid climatic type. Precipitation, chiefly rainfall, varies from 122-132 cm per year but late summer and fall droughts and winter and spring floods are common (Trewartha 1968, Dickson 1960). January mean maximum temperatures vary from about 8.8-11.1EC and mean minima are in the –2.2 -1.1EC range. Mean maximum temperature in July range from 31.1-33.3EC and mean minima range from 17.8-22.2EC (Dickson 1960).

     The Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Bluff Region, Tableland and Summit Region lie within the Mississippi Alluvial Plain and Eastern Gulf Coastal Plain sections of the Coastal Plain Physiographic Province. The Western Valley of the Tennessee River, Highland Rim, and Central Basin lie within the Interior Low Plateau Physiographic Province (Figure 1, Fenneman 1938).

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     Topography of the Alluvial Plain is a flat to undulating surface deposited by the Holocene and Pleistocene Mississippi River (Saucier 1974). Elevations at water’s edge vary from only about 55 m near the Mississippi State line to only 73 m near the Kentucky border. Elevations rise to ca. 92 m at the foot of the Bluff. Soils are sandy, silty or clayey, well drained to poorly drained, and very fertile. They are mapped as Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, and Utisols (Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

     Topography of the Bluff Region is one of rolling topography cut by floodplains and terraces of the Mississippi River tributaries, and characterized by some high steep bluffs bordering the Alluvial Plain. Elevations exceed 122 m. Underlying Tertiary deposits are covered by the deep loess mantle. Soils are well drained to moderately so, are fertile, and are classed as Alfisols, Entisols and Ultisols (Hardeman 1966, Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

     The Tableland Region of West Tennessee is a level to rolling surface again cut by tributary stream valleys. Upland soils are chiefly well drained to moderately so. Above floodplains with poorly drained soils are terraces with somewhat poorly drained to poorly drained soils. All soils are classed as Alfisols, Entisols, and Ultisols (Hardeman 1966, Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

     Safford’s Summit Region is an undulating to hilly area with elevations from about 122 m to over 183 m. His underlying three geologic beds are now expanded into 12 units and mapped in detail (Hardeman 1966). Some surface sediments are capped by thin loess. Soils are sandy, silty or clayey, well drained to somewhat poorly drained, some are cherty, some calcareous. They are classed as Ultisols, Alfisols and Entisols (Hardeman 1966, Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

     The Western Valley of the Tennessee River is an area of undulating to hilly and steep topography varying in elevation from less than 120 m to a little more than 180 m. It includes uplands and flood plains and terraces of the Tennessee River. Soils are underlain by, and on uplands developed from, limestone more characteristic of the Rim. Several Devonian limestone and cherts and several Silurian limestones and shales outcrop. Level upland sites may have a loess cap. Cretaceons formations also appear, as do extensive beds of Quaternary-Tertiary high level terraces. Soils are cherty or silty, loamy, excessively to somewhat poorly drained developed chiefly for limestone, shale, alluvium and loess. They are classed as Ultisols, Alfisols and Entisols (Hardeman 1966, Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

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The Highland Rim is a large area in Middle Tennessee with elevations of about 120 m along the Tennessee River near its western border to about 300 m at the edge of the Cumberland Plateau. It is an undulating to rolling surface punctuated by entrenched stream valleys; the Rim encircles the Central Basin. The Rim surface is underlain by nearly flat-lying limestones (rarely Cretaceous gravel on top); the valleys expose Siluvian or Ordovician limestones and shales, some partly covered by alluvium. Sites vary from hilly and steep to rolling and to undulating; they are excessively drained to poorly drained. The soils may be cherty, shaley, gravelly, loamy, or clayey derived from rocks noted above or from loess on undulating sites. Upland soils are acid and infertile. Soils are classed as Ultisols, Inceptisols and Alfisols (Hardeman 1966, Luther 1977, Springer and Elder 1980).

     The Central Basin is an elliptic saucer-shaped depression cut near the middle of the Highland Rim. Its elevations fall from Rim level to about 180 m. The rolling Outer Basin is underlain by massive to shaley limestones of which several are high in phosphate and calcium. Sites are undulating to rolling and hilly, soils are loamy or clayey, deep or moderately deep, and well drained from phosphatic limestone, or alluvium, or loess. They are classed as Alfisols, Ultisols, Mollisols and Inceptisols (Edwards et al. 1974, Luther 1977, Hardeman 1966). Sites of the Inner Basin are level to rolling, with shallow to deep silty or clayey soils which are poorly drained to well drained underlain by thin to thick bedded nearly horizontal limestone strata (Edwards et al. 1974, Luther 1977).

     The flora of the study area is relatively well known (Wofford and Kral 1993). Collections of native plants vary in number from 1056 (Montgomery County) to 110 (Crockett County) (University of Tennessee Herbarium 1998). Bottomland forests of West Tennessee are described by Sharitz and Mitsch (1993) and Patterson and DeSelm (1989). Upland forests of West and Middle Tennessee are described by Bryant et al. (1993). A small area of oak-hickory-pine forest is mapped in southwestern Middle and southeastern West Tennessee (Skeen et al. 1993). Cedar glade communities of the Basin are described by Quarterman et al. (1993) and barrens of the study area are described by DeSelm and Murdock (1993). Generally the forest vegetation falls into bottomland types, mesic lower slope and cove types and upland oak, oak-hickory, oak-pine, oak-cedar or cedar types. Some of these are mapped in part of the study area (Tennessee Valley Authority 1941).

     The study area was occupied or at least visited by Native Americans beginning at least 10,000 years before present (Paleoindian and Archaic cultures). Later cultures built villages along streams and uplands were used for hunting and the gathering of wild plant food. The use of fire in the forests was common (Hudson 1976). European-American settlement occurred following a series of treaties with the Native Americans over the period 1770 to 1818 (Folmsbee et al. 1969). Forests were cleared, some valley lands drained, and much land was put into row crops. Slopes were logged for building timbers, the forests were grazed and spring surface fires were used to facilitate early growth of the understory (Killebrew et al. 1874).

     Using his extensive knowledge of Tennessee geology, soils, and plants, John M. Safford describes again these characteristics of the West and Middle Tennessee landscape. In this version, he concentrates on those areas west of the Cumberland Plateau with deeper, more fertile soils used in the cultivation of cotton. He also selected cotton farmers from each of the various physiographic areas and asked them to send him written descriptions of the cotton land and cotton culture. Some descriptions seem to be quoted verbatim and some are edited (they are called "Abstracts"). Virtually all references to the native vegetation of the crop soil are prefaced by, "The growth is . . . ," or rarely . . . "and formerly with cane." Safford used 126 respondents who either wrote generally about a county or specifically about their locales.

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     Safford and his respondents report 67 taxa in 1375 "species noted" reports; these are divided among the seven physiographic areas and separated herein as overstory versus understory taxa. This tabular data has been converted to percent by area and provide the basis for conclusions in this paper. The plant sample being small, the writer has not tried to divide data by Safford’s (let alone modern) geologic nor soil units smaller than those stated. My opinion of modern plant name versus common name used appears in the tables. Nothing is known of the geologic, soils, nor botanical expertise of the respondents. Within-county locations are only generally known.

     Reported plant observations were biased toward the objectives of the study plants of cotton soils although nearby shallow-soil cedar glades and "flint lands" of ridges are occasionally mentioned. The reports followed by several decades settlement, and conversion of much of the land to crop use, forest logging, increases in forests of opportunistic, less shade-tolerant invader species, grazing by stock, and perhaps annual spring surface fires.

     In Table 1, note concentrations of observations of taxa (higher percentages) and geographic trends in taxa. However, many taxa well known in the various areas (Chester et al. 1993, Chester et al. 1997, Little 1971, 1977) may, or, disconcertingly, may not appear in the data. Sample size is the likely factor here. The focus of soils of cotton cultures, the virtual elimination of native plants from the most valuable soils, growth of increaser species in disturbed woodlots, stock grazing, and surface fires all effect species survival and availability to be seen and reported.

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In the following, genus/species reports are summarized (from Table 1):

Acer: Note concentration of box elder and red maple (including probably also silver maple (A. saccharinum) in the Bottoms; note the increase in abundance of sugar maple eastward from the Summit.

Carya: Hickories are abundant, pecan concentrated in the Bottoms.

Castanea: Chestnut is concentrated on acid soil highlands.

Celtis: Hackberries are distributed throughout but concentrated in Bottoms.

Fagus and Fraxinus: Beech and ashes are reported throughout.

Gymnocladus: Coffeenut (coffeetree) is reported in the Bottoms and Basin which is most of its range known today in Tennessee (Chester et al. 1997).

Juglans: Walnut is reported throughout. Most reports are probably black walnut but. respondents seldom separated the two walnut species. White walnut was reported only on clay loam upland in Tipton County, in valleys in Hickman County, and on brown loams in Williamson County. The large, chiefly black walnut percentages (3-8) contrasts sharply from modern West and Middle Tennessee forests where black walnut ranges from 0.20 to 0.78 percent of live trees (Schweitzer 1997, 1997). White walnut has been known in 27 counties (Chester et al. 1997) but is currently in decline from attack by the butternut canker believed to be an introduced fungus pathogen (Schlarbaum et al. no date).

Juniperus: Cedar (eastern red cedar) is known almost throughout the area but is mentioned only in Middle Tennessee where it occurs on shallow limestone soils (glades and limey glades of Safford). Low percentages are doubtless due to its concentration on non-cotton-culture soils.

Liquidambar styraciflua: Sweetgum, Liquidambar or Nyssa, gum, and Liriodendron tulipifera appear nearly throughout.

Magnolia acuminata: Cucumber tree is known today in the Basin from Sumner County; Safford reports it in the Basin on "mulatto lands of the Nashville Series" [bedrock].

Morus: Mulberry (red mulberry, Morus rubra) was reported nearly throughout. The high concentration in the Bottoms may be an artifact or local phenomenon as it is noted in the Mississippi River delta forests as, "Never prominent or of much importance" (Putnam and Bull 1932).

Nyssa: Tupelo gum is in the Bottoms, other species are throughout–N. sylvatica may include N. biflora.

Oxydendron and Pinus: Sourwood and the pines are uncommonly mentioned on acid soil uplands.

Platanus: Sycamore is mainly on Bottoms.

Populus: Cottonwood (P. deltoides) is concentrated in the Bottoms and may include P. heterophylla.

Quercus: The oaks collectively comprise a large proportion of the reports. Q. alba, Q. velutina, Q. falcata, Q. stellata are most important in that order. Q. velutina, black oak, may include northern red oak (Q. rubra), and shumard oak (Q. shumardii) on limestone and cherry bark oak (Q. pagoda) on loess bluffs. Pin oak of the Basin may include shumard oak which occurs in swamps there with pin. The identification of swamp oak and turkey oaks is unknown although turkey oak is a name sometimes given to Q. falcata (Britton and Brown 1913). Q. falcata may include Q. pagoda in the west.

Salix:Willow, presumably mostly S. nigra, in Bottoms.

Sassafras: An occasional forest tree and old field invader, its importance here is in the Bottoms and on Bluffs. According to Sargent (1884) its importance is greatest in "southwestern Arkansas and the Indian Territory [Oklahoma]."

Taxodium: Concentrated in Bottoms.

Tilia: Two species occur in Tennessee. Their increased importance eastward is mirrored in the trend shown here.

Ulmus: Seven species occur in Tennessee; in the west the higher importances are in the Bottoms and Bluffs (here U. americana) whereas eastward U. alata and U. rubra may be expected to increase. U. serotina may be included in Basin numbers. Mr. Samuel Perkins of eastern Williamson County was the only respondent who reported red elm and white (American) elm separately. He also distinguished the species black and white walnuts. (He distinguished white and yellow poplar but the basis for this is not known to the author.)

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Taxa listed as understory include small trees, shrubs, vines and two herbs (Table 2). The species or genera occur widely over the study area (Chester et al. 1974, Chester et al. 1977).

Arundinaria cf. gigantea was the only species noted specifically in the Bottoms. Earlier descriptions note cane’s abundance in many forests in most parts of the State and its demise following grazing/browsing by stock in rural areas after settlement (Killebrew et al. 1874).

Asimina (pawpaw), Cercis (redbud) and Cornus (dogwood): Their abundances across the area are noteworthy.

Corylus cf. americana: Abundance in West Tennessee upland is noted.

Carroll County: "The black sandy soil of the hickory barrens is our best cotton soil . . ."
Central Basin: "Cedar glades and great cedar forests . . ."
Hardeman County: some pine land
Hardin County, east of Savannah: "post oak flatwoods"
Hatchie Bottoms: cypress sloughs

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Haywood County: greenbrier land and cypress swamps and "hazelnut plains" on chocolate-colored soils.
Henry County: "post oak glades in the eastern part of the 24^th civil district," and "The black sandy loams of hazel-nut valleys . . . and ridges of the northwestern part of the county . . ."
Highland Rim: ". . . upland flat barrens . . ."
Lincoln County: ". . . high barrens to the south with half size oaks"
Madison County: ". . . swamp and greenbrier glades."
McNairy and Henderson counties where green sand comes to the surface: glades and bald places
McNairy County: ". . . with woodland and marly and glady places; bald knobs in some barrens with small oaks and hickories . . ."
Mississippi River: cypress swamps
Obion County: gray soil with ". . . a small amount of glade. . ."
Perry County: "some woodland with marly limestone glades"
Rutherford County: "poplar lands" [but with a variety of species]
Sumner County: "yellow poplar land" and "bluegrass land"
Weakley County: hickory-dogwood-black gum barrens, post oak barrens, blackjack barrens, white oak and hickory highlands and post oak ridges
Wilson County: "poplar ridge land" [also with oak and hickory]

 DISCUSSION

     Numbers of "species" observations per geographic area controls numbers of "species" seen. Each 100 "species" observation increases the number of taxa reported by 5.93 (between 21 and 51 species). The list of trees given by Safford or his respondents for any given area does not necessarily means they grow together in the same community. For example, respondent Z. Bryant, Sr., of Gibson County, on sandy soil, lists blackjack oak with poplar and beech–obviously not from the same site. In Tipton County alluvial soils are noted by respondent A. W. Smith with walnut, beech and others including cottonwood–again not from the same site. Individual plant communities are not suggested by the composition nor proportions of observations of the various levels of taxa in the physiographic areas. The Bottom taxa neither match the frequency of species in all bottomlands nor relative importance across communities (see Patterson and DeSelm 1989). The tabular list here from the Bluffs is only suggestive of the combined ridge and southwest facing and northeast facing slope communities described by Miller and Neiswender (1987). Similarly some of the communities described or listed for the Highland Rim and Central Basin seem to be averaged by the Tabular data in Table 1 (see DeSelm and Schmalzer 1982, McKinney and Hemmerly 1989, Pearsall et al. 1985, and Smith et al. 1983).

Classes of Taxa

     Vegetational homogeneity is seen from the Bluffs eastward through the Rim: the sums of oak, hickory and poplar percentages is 44-71 among the areas. However, in the Bottoms these taxa total only 18 and in the Basin they totally only 37 indicating the different nature of the vegetation of the latter two areas. The uniqueness of the Bottoms (Table 1) may be seen in that 14 taxa chosen as hydrophytes (H) have percentages totaling 52 compared to only 2+ to 9 in the other geographic areas. In Table 1, eight taxa are shown as mesophytes (M). Percentages totals are six in the Bottoms, 25-27 in the Bluffs eastward through the Rim, and 33 in the Basin. Clearly the often flooded bottoms exceed stress levels for mesophytes. Most of the areas contain some soils which are fertile, but on the deep, fertile soils of the Basin, the mesophytes flourish best.

     Six taxa have been designated calciphiles (C). Percentages of these total 6-18 in the Bottoms eastward through the Rim. In the Basin calciphile percentages total 23 suggesting the selective action on these high calcium soils on certain tree species abundance. Note also that the young, less leached, alluvial soils of the Bottoms and loess soils of the Bluffs harbor 17 and 16 total calciphile percentages respectively. Some woody plants (Shanks 1952) and a few grasses (as Panicum malacophyllum) occur both in the Basin and on the Bluffs (DeSelm et al. 1994).

     In Bryant et al. (1993) most of the upland of the study area is designated the Oak-Hickory Forest. This applies well to upland eastward through the Rim where oak and hickory percentages total 34 to 62. Oak-hickory-poplar percentages total 44 to 71. The "chestnut-chestnut oak-yellow poplar" designation of Zon (Shantz and Zon 1924) applies well to poplar here but inadequate sampling here of non-cotton-chestnut oak-chestnut landscape negates distinguishing such vegetation. Low chestnut percentage may be due to the particular lands sampled as suggested above, or due to logging prior to this study. Or perhaps chestnut dieback was occurring; Mohr (1901) reported dieback of chestnut during the previous three decades in Alabama.

     Clearly the Bottom area fits into the Southern Floodplain Forest (Sharitz and Mitsch 1993). But what regional designation should be applied to the Basin? Its oak and hickory percentages total only 25 compared to 34-62 for the other upland areas. The higher mesophyte percent total of 33 versus 6-27, and higher calciphile percentage, 23 versus 6-18 elsewhere, suggests the discreteness of the Basin vegetation. Its contrast with the vegetation of the eastern Rim has been seen before in the 1807 survey records (DeSelm 1994) and its floristic uniqueness has been noted by others (Baskin and Baskin 1986, Bridges and Orzell 1986, Quarterman 1950, and Shanks 1958). The name given to the region by Braun (1950), Western Mesophytic Forest Region, applies best to the Basin.

     There being little absolute geographic control, there being observations by probably unskilled scientific respondents, and there being relatively few data accumulated, conclusions warranted can only be few. The Mississippi River Bottoms are little related to the uplands and inclusion in Southern Floodplains Forest is supported. The land eastward to the Central Basin is more or less homogenous vegetationally and its inclusion in the Oak-Hickory Forest applies. The Central Basin, having lower oak and hickory percentages and higher mesophyte and calciphile percentages may fit better into Braun’s Western Mesophytic Forest Region. Safford’s separation of the Western Tennessee River valley from the western Rim does not seem justified on the basis of the vegetation of deeper, cotton-culture soils.

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